Basic Qualification

key word: AUTHORITY. Countries administer radio within their borders and territorial waters. The Canadian parliament enacted the 'Radiocommunication Act' (a law). This law grants authority to Industry-Canada to regulate radio communications. That department then issues 'Radiocommunication Regulations' where services such as the "maritime service", the "aeronautical service" and the "amateur radio service" are defined.

Holder of radio authorization has 48 HOURS to fulfill the request of a radio inspector. (Radio Regulations)

Out of band transmissions contravene the regulations of the Amateur service.

The Basic Qualification is the only examination to obtain a Certificate ( and a call sign ). [ w.p.m. = words per minute, Morse speed ]

key words: FRIEND, NOT the holder of a certificate. Installing or operating a station on behalf of an unlicensed person is prohibited.

key words: NOT CORRECT. "1", "2" and "3" are true. Using an amplifier on what is normally a license-exempt transmitter (e.g., a Citizens Band radio) is illegal.

Retransmitting programming that originates from a broadcasting undertaking is specifically prohibited in the Radiocommunication Regulations.

Yes, ANYWHERE in Canada but if you change your address permanently, you must notify Industry-Canada within 30 DAYS.

A licensed Amateur, the 'Control Operator', must be in charge of the station whenever it is on the air.

Primary User and Secondary User are statuses assigned to different services when frequency bands are allocated by Industry-Canada. "Stations of a secondary service: a) shall not cause harmful interference to stations of primary service, b) cannot claim protection from harmful interference from stations of a primary service". For example, on 430-450 MHz and 902-928 MHz, the Amateur Radio Service has secondary status behind other services.

key words: DIRECTLY INVOLVED with distress. This is the only acceptable excuse for interference.

"A person who operates in the Amateur Radio service shall do so without demanding or accepting remuneration in any form". (Radiocommunication Regulations)

Station identification: your call sign in English or French, at the START and the END of a contact or test transmission and every 30 minutes at the most. Only Remote-Control transmissions to model craft need not include station identification.

key word: FORBIDDEN. Certain countries do not allow amateur communications with their borders; they must notify the ITU that they forbid such communications.

15-metre: 21.00 to 21.45 MHz. With wavelength in metres being 300 divided by frequency in megahertz: the band covers 14.3 metres to 14.0 metres.

Allowed bandwidths: with the exception of 30m (10.1 to 10.15 MHz) where 1 kHz is allowed, 6 kHz is allowed on bands below 28 MHz, 20 kHz is allowed on 10m (28.0 to 29.7 MHz), 30 kHz is allowed on 6m (50 to 54 MHz) and 2m (144 to 148 MHz), Fast-scan Amateur Television only becomes permissible on 430 to 450 MHz [where 12 MHz of bandwidth is allowed]. In order of bandwidth requirements: CW = about 100 Hz, RTTY = about 600 Hz, SSB = 2 to 3 kHz, FM = 10 to 20 kHz.

Amateurs shall use the minimum power necessary to communicate within these restrictions: BASIC Qualification = 250 Watts DC input or 560 Watts PEP ("where expressed as radio frequency output power measured across an impedance-matched load"). ADVANCED Qualification: 1000 Watts DC input. The Morse Qualification has no bearing on the allowed power.

A 'Repeater' is generally located on a hill or tall building. It is meant to extend the range of portables and mobiles. 'Beacons' are one-way automated stations maintained by amateurs which operate on known frequencies to permit evaluating propagation conditions.

"An amateur station transmitting amplitude modulation is limited to 100 per cent modulation." (RIC-2)

key word: NOT. Amateur Radio is precisely the exchange of messages of a technical or personal nature.

The Americas are in ITU Region 2. Australia and Southeast Asia are in ITU Region 3.

Accredited examiners are free to negotiate the payment of a fee. (RIC-1)

Type 2 Stations that do NOT require a site specific authorization, e.g., amateur, general radio service (GRS) and satellite receiving stations - non-site-specific. Owners must comply with Safety Code 6. Prior to the installation of an antenna structure for which it is felt that community concerns could be raised, owners must consult with their land-use authority. Industry Canada expects owners to address the concerns of the community in a responsible manner, and to consider seriously all requests put forward by the land-use authority. (CPC-2-0-03)

Health-Canada publishes 'Safety Code 6' (Limits of Human Exposure to Radiofrequency Electromagnetic Fields) to protect workers and general public from adverse health effects. The lowest exposure limit is set to '28 Volts per metre' for the range of 10 MHz to 300 MHz. This range is presumed to be the one over which the human body most readily absorbs RF energy. Limits on either side of that range are higher. Since 1999, a previous exemption for portable transmitters has been removed (i.e., handhelds are no longer exempt from code requirements).

Field Strength Criterion for 'Broadcast Receivers' (equipment for the reception of broadcast sound and television signals): 1.83 Volts per metre. The "Criteria for Resolution of Immunity Complaints involving Fundamental Emissions of Radiocommunications Transmitters" considers 3 categories of electronic equipment: 'Broadcast Receivers', 'Associated Equipment' (recorders, players, amplifiers, converters, etc.) and 'Radio-Sensitive Equipment' (all other non-radio electronic equipment). (EMCAB-2)

Repeaters are meant primarily to extend the range of portables and mobiles. You never know when someone else might need the repeater. Be sure to leave pauses in between transmissions. Anyone wanting the repeater may signal his presence by stating his call sign during one such pause. A station may have emergency traffic.

To make a call sign clearer or spell some unusual word, use the International Phonetic Alphabet: Alpha, Bravo, Charlie, Delta, Echo, Fox-Trot, Golf, Hotel, India, Juliet, Kilo, Lima, Mike, November, Oscar, Papa, Quebec, Romeo, Sierra, Tango, Uniform, Victor, Whisky, X-Ray, Yankee, Zulu.

'Beacons' are one-way automated stations maintained by amateurs which operate on known frequencies to permit evaluating propagation conditions.

A 'Net' is an activity carried on a given day and time at a known frequency where stations exchange information. Although no given station is entitled to any specific frequency (regardless of license class, power or affiliation), stations would normally yield to an established daily net but if not, you need to move the net away.

"CQ" is a general call to any station. "DE" ( French for 'from' ) is the Morse abbreviation for "this is". Other abbreviations include: "K" (go ahead or over), "DX" (distant station) and "73" (best regards). [ "KN" is 'go station' ]

"RST", A short way to describe signal reception ( Readability: 1 to 5, Signal Strength: 1 to 9, Tone Quality (for Morse): 1 to 9 ). For example, "11" unreadable, barely perceptible. "33" difficult to read, weak signal. "45" readable, fairly good. "57" perfectly readable, moderately strong.

Nine Q codes: QRL? frequency in use?, QRM interference, QRN static, QRS send more slowly, QRX will call you, QRZ? who is calling, QSO contact in progress, QSY change frequency, QTH location.

Amateurs have a long history of providing emergency communications during disasters. Charged batteries and rapidly-deployable antennas are useful station accessories.

"Coordinated Universal Time", the international time standard. "UTC" is not a true acronym; it is a variant of Universal Time, UT, and has a modifier C (for "coordinated") appended to it. Has replaced Greenwich Mean Time (GMT). Greenwich Mean Time (GMT) is mean solar time at the Royal Greenwich Observatory in Greenwich, England, which by convention is at 0 degrees geographic longitude.

The 'SWR Bridge' permits measuring the relative impedance match between the antenna system and the transceiver (SWR = Standing Wave Ratio). The HF Station block diagram begins with: Transceiver, Linear Amplifier, Low-Pass Filter, SWR Bridge, Antenna Switch...

The Oscillator frequency and the deviation impressed on it by the Modulator are brought up to the operating frequency through multiplication. The FM Transmitter block diagram: Microphone, Speech Amplifier, Modulator, Oscillator, Frequency Multiplier, Power Amplifier, Antenna.

In a receiver, an RF amplifier is generally used to amplify the tiny signal (i.e., microvolts) arriving from the Antenna. Once amplified, the incoming signal is fed to the Mixer.

In all transmitters, the last stage before the Antenna is a Power Amplifier which imparts the transmitted signal it actual power. The CW Transmitter block diagram: Master Oscillator, Driver/Buffer, Power Amplifier, Antenna. A Power Supply supplies DC to all stages. A Telegraph Key activates the Driver and Power Amplifier when pressed.

In an SSB/CW receiver, detection (recovery of the message) is performed by a 'Product Detector'. The 'Product Detector' mixes the Intermediate Frequency signal with a Beat Frequency Oscillator to transpose the IF signal down to the audible range. The demodulated signal is applied to an Audio Amplifier to provide sufficient drive for the loudspeaker.

The Mixer takes in the SSB signal and the VFO output to bring up the SSB signal at the operating frequency. The SSB Transmitter block diagram: The Balanced Modulator takes in two signals: fixed frequency from an RF Oscillator and the microphone signal after it has passed through a Speech Amplifier. Out of the Balanced Modulator, a Filter selects the desired sideband. This SSB signal is mixed with a Variable Frequency Oscillator (VFO) signal by a Mixer. Out of the Mixer, the SSB signal is now at the operating frequency and is taken through a LINEAR Power Amplifier.

The Digital Station block diagram: Input/Output, Computer, MODEM, Transceiver, Antenna.

The pure DC available after the 'Filter' goes through the 'Regulator' which maintains a constant output voltage regardless of input variations or load changes. The blocks in a Regulated Power Supply: Input, Transformer, Rectifier, Filter, Regulator, Output.

The 'boom' supports the elements of the Yagi.

The mixer accepts two inputs: the incoming signal and the local High Frequency Oscillator. Mixing returns two new products: the sum of the two inputs, the difference of the two inputs. The IF Filter seeks to let only one of the products into the Intermediate Frequency chain for amplification through the IF Amplifier. In this example, 3995 kHz minus 3540 kHz yields 455 kHz.

key words: VFO, Variable Frequency Oscillator. The CW Transmitter block diagram: Master Oscillator, Driver/Buffer, Power Amplifier, Antenna.

ALC -- Automatic Level Control. A feedback circuit from the Linear Power Amplifier to an earlier amplifier stage which seeks to avoid overdriving the transmitter with too much audio. When the ALC acts, it is a corrective action. An infrequent ALC action on modulation peaks indicates that there is no overdriving. If the ALC needed to intervene constantly, this would indicate that the operator is trying to feed too much audio through the transmitter.

The concept here is that IF NO AUDIO is fed in an FM transmitter, the carrier put out at the Power Amplifier has full amplitude anyway. A carrier which conveys no message is an 'unmodulated carrier'.

The 'Dummy Load' (a resistor with a high power rating) dissipates RF energy as heat without radiating the RF on the air. Permits tests or adjustments without causing interference to other stations. The 'tuning process' (or 'loading') refers to a manual procedure necessary for equipment with vacuum tube final Power Amplifiers where variable capacitors needed to be adjusted.

A 'Terminal-Node Controller' (TNC) is the key component in a packet station. The TNC is a specialized MODEM which assembles/de-assembles data packets and performs error checking. A TNC in "Monitor" mode will display the packets heard but not attempt to acknowledge any.

EMF = Electromotive Force or voltage. Lead-Acid batteries are commonly used in vehicles. The car battery has a nominal voltage of 12 Volts.

A DIODE, vacuum tube or semiconductor, has two electrodes: Anode and Cathode. Electrons flow from Cathode to Anode in a forward-biased (i.e., a diode subjected to a voltage polarity which permits conduction) diode.

If the human heart is part of the electrocution path, even one tenth of an Ampere can lead to cardiac arrest.

An external ground connection on each cabinet serves as a backup to the normal electrical outlet ground ( the 'green' wire in a three-lead power cord ).

Even at modest power, touching a radiating antenna or open-wire line can lead to 'RF burns'. Voltage is not the only factor, radio-frequency reaches deep into the skin, potentially causing nasty burns.

RF energy can heat body tissue. VHF and UHF frequencies present the greatest risk. Never point antennas at anyone. Never look into antennas. Disconnect transmission lines before working on antennas (to further reduce the odds of an error at the station exposing to RF).

key word: NOT. Amplifiers work on voltage, current and power.

A DIODE, vacuum tube or semiconductor, has two electrodes: Anode and Cathode. Electrons flow from Cathode to Anode in a forward-biased (i.e., a diode subjected to a voltage polarity which permits conduction) diode. Cathode/Grid/Anode(plate) are electrodes in a vacuum triode. Source/Gate/Drain are electrodes in a Field Effect Transistor (FET, N-Channel or P-Channel). Emitter/Base/Collector are electrodes in a Bipolar Transistor ( type PNP or NPN ).

Extreme operating temperatures can rapidly destroy transistors.

In a field effect transistor, Source and Drain are the two extremities of a 'channel' made of a single semi-conductor type. NPN and PNP are the two type of BIPOLAR Transistors.

A negative grid repulses the negatively-charged electrons arriving from the cathode. The triode and the FET both rely on a reverse voltage on their control electrodes to affect the current through the device.

Temperature affects all components and conductors.

Kilovolt is a thousand volts. Converting from kilovolts to volts: from large units to smaller units, requires more digits, decimal point moves to the right by three positions, a thousand times more.

Reciprocal = 'the inverse of something'. 1 over resistance yields CONDUCTANCE. Low resistance implies high conductance. High resistance implies little conductance.

How fast does each one make the electrical utility meter on the side of your house spin ? The device with the highest wattage spins it the fastest.

Ohm's Law ( I = E / R ) becomes R = E / I when solving for R. Resistance is Voltage divided by current. Ohms = Volts / Amperes. 12 Volts / 0.25 Amperes = 48 ohms.

key word: PARALLEL. In a parallel circuit, the total current is the sum of the currents. 3 and 4 are false because all resistors are subjected to the same voltage in a PARALLEL circuit. 2 is incorrect: Ohm's Law tells us that the smaller resistor will draw more current than the others.

This is about POWER RATING, not resistance. Two identical resistors can safely dissipate TWICE as much power as only one. [ Yes, total resistance will be half, but that is immaterial here ]

'Harmonics' are integer MULTIPLES (e.g., 2x, 3x, 4x, 5x,...) of a given frequency. The base frequency is referred to as the 'fundamental'.

To bring a received signal strength of '30 dB OVER Nine S units' down to 'Nine S units' supposes a drop of -30dB, i.e., one thousandth of the original power. In this example, 100 Watts would need to be brought down to 0.1 Watt.

key words: PARALLEL CAPACITORS. Capacitors behave OPPOSITE TO INDUCTORS. With CAPACITORS in PARALLEL, the total value is the sum of the values. Picture in your head, the area of the plates growing as more and more capacitors are added in parallel. More plate area, more capacity.

Reactance is opposition. XL = 2 * PI * f * L. Inductive reactance = two times PI (i.e., 3.14) times frequency in Hertz times inductance in Henrys. XL = 2 * 3.14 * 60 Hz * 1 H = 376.8

As work is performed at a lower voltage on the secondary side, current on the secondary is larger. The turns ratio is '20 to 1' ( 240 Volts to 12 Volts ), the current ratio follows the inverse of that ratio: 20 * 0.25 Amperes = 5 Amperes. Method B: Primary consumes 60 Watts ( 240 Volts * 0.25 Amperes ), secondary must draw that same power (discounting losses). What is the secondary current for 60 Watts at 12 Volts ? I = P / E (derived from P = E * I), I = 60 Watts / 12 Volts = 5 Amperes.

Resonance is the condition where Inductive Reactance (XL) is equal in value to Capacitive Reactance (XC). For a given Inductance (L, a coil or inductor) and Capacitance (C, a capacitor), resonance happens at one frequency: the resonant frequency. At resonance, the two reactances cancel each other, only resistance is left in the circuit.

key word: CURRENT. Ammeter comes from the words Ampere + meter, it is used to measure current.

"Feed line" is synonym for "transmission line".

key word: BALANCED. A 'balanced' transmission line operates with both conductors floating above ground potential (like all types of parallel lines: twin-lead, open-wire line). An 'UNbalanced' transmission line functions with one conductor connected to ground (like coaxial cable or 'coax' for short).

key word: NOT. The high Characteristic Impedances and greater separation of the conductors in parallel lines DO permit high power and high Standing Wave Ratio (SWR) BUT nearby metallic objects can affect them and impedance matching is most often necessary at the transmitter end. Their high Characteristic Impedance permits carrying power with less current (P = R * I squared), less current implies less losses due to resistance.

Losses in transmission lines increase with length and operating frequencies. At Ultra High Frequencies (UHF, 300 MHz to 3000 MHz), keeping losses low is paramount.

'Standing Waves' result from the interaction of the forward power sent from the transmitter towards the antenna and the reverse power reflected back by an improper impedance match. The interaction produces a repeating pattern of voltage peaks and troughs along the line. SWR is also known as 'Voltage Standing Wave Ratio (VSWR)': it is a measure of the peak voltage to the minimum voltage on the standing wave.

Impedance transformation of 300 to 50 ohms is required. 300 / 50 = '6 to 1'.

'Isotropic' means "equal radiation in all directions". An 'isotropic antenna', also called 'isotropic radiator' is an HYPOTHETICAL point source. Plotting the pattern in all planes around the source would yield a 'sphere' as a pattern. The 'isotropic antenna' is used as a reference to compare the gain of real antennas.

Wavelength (lambda) in metres IN FREE SPACE is 300 divided by frequency in Megahertz. Wavelength and frequency have an inverse relationship. Antennas on the 2 metre VHF band (144 to 148 MHz) are much shorter than antennas on the 80 metre HF band (3.5 to 4.0 MHz).

Antenna Gain is a ratio, expressed in decibel, of the radiation of a given antenna against some reference antenna. For example, the expression 'dBi' means decibel over an isotropic radiator.

key words: QUARTER-wavelength. Wavelength (lambda) in metres IN FREE SPACE is 300 divided by frequency in Megahertz. Answer: 95 % of one quarter wavelength in free space = '300 / 4 * 0.95' divided by frequency in Megahertz = 71.3 divided by frequency in Megahertz. In this example, '300 / 21.125 MHz / 4 * 0.95' = 3.37m

key word: DRIVEN. Same approximate length as a HALF-WAVE dipole. Wavelength (lambda) in metres IN FREE SPACE is 300 divided by frequency in Megahertz. Answer: 95 % of one half wavelength in free space = '(300 / 2) * 0.95' divided by frequency in Megahertz = 143 divided by frequency in Megahertz. In this example, '(300 / 14 MHz / 2) * 0.95' = 10.18m .

An antenna with traps is a multi-band antenna (i.e., resonant at more than one frequency). If the transmitter leaks harmonic energy (multiples of the operating energy), this harmonic energy may be more readily radiated by a multi-band antenna. For example, traps are inserted in an antenna for 80-metre to permit operation on 40-metre; if your transmitter puts out 'harmonics' while you operate on 80-m ( say, 3.5 MHz ), the second harmonic falls in the 40-m band. The antenna is also resonant at that frequency and would freely radiate the harmonics.

key words: LOOP, OVERALL length. A loop antenna is a little over 1 wavelength long (1.02 wavelength to be precise).

Sky Waves or 'ionospheric waves' rely on refraction in layers of the ionosphere.

Above the troposphere and stratosphere, the layers of the ionosphere are: D, E, F1 and F2 (from lowest to highest).

Do not confuse Skip Distance and Skip Zone. Skip Distance is the "nearest point where the sky wave returns". It marks the end of the Skip Zone which extended from beyond the reach of the Ground Wave to the "nearest point where the sky wave returns".

Ionospheric Storm: exceptional solar activity where greater quantities of particles arrive from the Sun make for more ionization (too much ionization), absorption is increased and may last for days.

Because the Sun affects the ionosphere and the troposphere (e.g., temperature inversions), it can be said that it has an influence on all radiocommunications.

The 'Critical Frequency' is a measurement of the highest frequency which will be refracted back to Earth when sent straight up at a given time. Above the Critical Frequency, the wave escapes into space. How high the Critical Frequency is, relates to the ionization level.

At 50 to 54 MHz, the 6m band normally escapes into space. However, 'Sporadic E' ( intense but temporary ionization of patches in the upper regions of the E layer ) can provide refraction paths for 6m.

key words: WEAK, DISTORTED. Signals propagated via 'HF Scatter' have a characteristic weak and distorted (hollow, echo-like) sound. The distortion is caused by multi-path effects. Unlike simple refraction, where the entire signal changes direction, scattering splits the signal in many directions (thus explaining the weakness).

'Cross-Modulation' is a special case of overload: it too supposes a strong undesired signal. The peculiarity of 'Cross-Modulation' is that the two signals are heard at the same time: the one you want AND the undesired interfering signal.

Long wires act as antennas. The wires should be kept as short as possible. Winding speaker or telephone wires around a 'ferrite core' makes an Inductor (a coil). Inductors oppose (inductive reactance) high frequency AC signals such as Radio-Frequency. The 'ferrite core' makes for more inductance even with only a few turns of wire. Ferrite is a material with electromagnetic properties.

key word: LOCAL. 'Key-Clicks' in a CW Transmitter have two manifestations. One in DISTANT receivers, caused by "too sharp rise and decay times of the carrier", results in clicks being heard several kHz away from your operating frequency. The other in NEARBY broadcast receivers, caused by "sparking at the key contacts", results in clicks being heard just like from other electrical devices where currents are switched. A simple 'key-click filter' comprises a choke (an inductor) and a capacitor inserted at the telegraph key.

key words: POORLY TUNED TX, MULTI-BAND ANTENNA. Improper adjustment of the transmitter may cause it to put out 'Harmonic Radiation' (integer multiples of the operating frequency). The multi-band antenna will readily radiate these signals at other frequencies.

key words: HIGH-FREQUENCY. A 'Low-Pass' filter with a cutoff frequency of 30 MHz helps curb harmonics out of an HF transmitter. The filter allows frequencies BELOW the cutoff to pass freely but attenuates frequencies above the cutoff. The HF segment of the radio spectrum spans 3 MHz to 30 MHz.